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Other readers will always be interested in your opinion of the books you've read. Whether you've loved the book or not, if you give your honest and detailed thoughts then people will find new books that are right for them. Since Branches that are lateral and terminal branches to enhance the rigidity ofthe plant.
This is less than 30 em tall often are removed, which facilitates passage of labor intensive and requires a high degree of familiarity with the culti- equipment and eliminates branches that produce fruit that is inefficient vars on the part of the grower. If the plants are widely spaced and to harvest and often of lower commercial value. In some cultivars, such vigorous, and if they are being grown under favorable conditions, with as 'York', the fruit load may be such that some branches will bend until good pest control, fertilization, and irrigation, more canes can be left they touch the ground.
Problematic canes should be removed; ideally a unpruned. This method is quick, does not entail any decision making about the age or number of 2. Fruit yields will increase steadily during the first 3 branches, and can be mechanized. Provided enough old wood is left, this years following establishment of cuttings. With some cultivars, new shoot management. Nonselective,postemergent herbicides should be used production will be stimulated as well.
In a dense elderberry plantation, water stress during or symptoms and be injured. Pruning out nonfruiting canes is a way of minimizing the impact of such stress. Canes that are infested with G. Pests and Diseases cane borers or other insect pests may also have to be pruned out in order to limit any further infestations see Section III.
G, "Pest and Diseases". Few insect pests were identified in small elderberry plant- All removed branches should be disposed of in such a way as to avoid ings consisting of four-year-old bushes in southern Quebec D. If Charlebois, unpubl. However, some species have the potential for branches may be diseased or insect infested, they should be burned.
Simply shredding the pruned canes that have been left in the aisles is not The currant borer, Ramosia tipulijormis Clerck , attacks currants and sufficient to eliminate many insect pests that may be infesting them elderberries Pirone et al. Insects and mites that may be pests on Stokes However, from a practical standpoint, commercial elder- elderberries include the elder shoot borer, Achatodes zeae Harris berry growers often flail canes in the aisleway.
Silver ; Buriff and Still , of which the larvae feed on canes in which they hatch; the elder borer, Desmocerus palliatus Forster , which in its adult stage eats elderberry pollen and leaves, and lays its F.
Weed Control eggs in canes near ground level; and Aphis sambuci 1. Larval feeding by the elder borer causes the free. During the establishment period, competition from other vegetation dieback of branches and sometimes the entire shrub Pirone et al. Infested twigs should be pruned promptly and burned. Eriophyid mites Once the bushes have become well established, however, they become Eriophyidae feeding on leaves Schooley and flowers and caus- competitive.
Vaneckova-Skuhrava reported elderberry bushes. A cover crop is useful in the aisles; a species that is an that the eriophyid mite Epitrimerus trilobus Nalepa overwinters within undemanding, slow-growing perennial that requires minimal mowing, and beneath leaf buds of S. However, very water, and fertilizer, and one that provides a favorable environment for little is known about eriophyid mite species that may infestelderberry in organic matter accumulation and reduces soil erosion by minimizing North America, including their life cycles.
Proper site preparation before The larvae ofthe cecropia moth, Hyalophora cecropia 1. Plant debris should be raked Schrank in England Atkinson and Atkinson ; the fall webworm, away from the elderberry plants in order to discourage rodents from Hyphantria cunea Drury ; and the rusty tussock moth, Orgyia antiqua overwintering and feeding on the plants Martin and Mott Since L.
Gall mites and the two-spotted spider mite, elderberries are shallow rooted, mechanical activity in the orchard, Tetranychus urticae Koch , suck sap from the leaves. Sap beetles feed on including mowing, tillage, and harrowing, should be reduced to a the sap of the bush and juice from the fruits.
Adult European snout minimum to avoid soil compaction and root damage. On small planta- beetles, Phyllobius oblongus 1. Potato flea-beetle, Elderberries are considered a minor crop with the result that few Epiirix sp. Birds of prey Comstock ; and madrone thrips, Thrips madronii Moulton , are all are the elderberry grower's natural allies.
Territorial birds like the eastern considered of minor importance Pirone et al. Management kingbird Tyrannus tyrannus 1. Trap crops may also be insecticides at timely intervals. Care must be taken when using insecti- useful. Millet, rye, and wheat have been reported to produce good results cides in order to avoid contaminating flowers Cuedon et al. If these crops are harvested fruits.
The efficacy of this approach simpsonii was effective in reducing egg deposition from the tobacco is limited with bird species that feed mainly or exclusively on fruits. The insect repellent potential Depending on the size of the plantation and the seriousness of the bird of European elderberry leaves has been known for centuries Smith and problem, it may prove simpler for growers to resign themselves to the Secoy It has also been reported for American elderberry leaves by loss of a percentage of the crop than to install a bird-scaring system.
As a Durand et al. According to Shahidi-Noghabi et al. Fungal, Viral, and Bacterial Diseases. The following pathogenic 2. Mammals and Birds. American and European elderberries possess fungi have been reported on Sambucus species in landscape or fruit many features, such as fall ripening, small seeds, and short retention production uses Pirone et al.
Elderberries are considered to be fairly Cankers. Cytospora leucosperma Pers. Cytospora sambu- digestible Short and Epps Some ofthese pests will even eat unripe fruits Sacco Girdling of the infected twigs is usually followed by the death of Hankla ; Schaefer and Schmidt Browsing by mammals can its terminal portion. The infected material should be pruned and sometimes be severe with serious reduction in yield, but often it is destroyed. An electric fence will keep deer out but will be ineffective against smaller animals.
European elderberry Leaf-Spots. Ascochyta wisconsina Davis, Phaeoramularia catenospora leaves are thought to be toxic to mammals Grime et al. Various Atk. Cercospora catenospora Atk. Despite a claim made by Desm. Sepiotia sambucina Peck Infection is usually moderate requiring no American and European elderberries are also attractive to birds particular intervention.
Martin et al. Erysiphe penicillata Wallr. Link [syn. Micro- Martin and Mott The presence of amygdaline, a cyanogenic sphaera alni D. If not harvested, European elderberries are usually stripped of their fruits corylea Pers. Netting, while effec- Takam [syn. Sphaerotheca humuli DC. Various bird-scaring systems are available, such as noise cannons and distress calls, but Other Fungal Diseases. Thread blight caused by Corticiuin koleroga unless a grower is vigilant about managing the frequency and placement Cooke Hahn.
Pellicularia koleroga Cooke] Pirone et al. Sambucus racemosa and S. Reduced plex Kunze Fr. Verticillium wilt compaction. Care must be taken to avoid exposure to herbicides and attacks weakened bushes and sometimes kills isolated canes, but as a some plant growth regulators since reduced growth, leaf scorching,. However, it is advisable to death may occur from exposure to these chemicals Marshall Harvest Puccinia bolleyana Schw.
Erikss [syn. Corticium sam- are not well suited for such a practice because the fruits do not separate buciPers. No descripti. In the case ofAmerican elderberry, the crown the symptoms was, however, provided by the authors. Proper spacing is wide, spreading the catcher plates on currently available mechanical and alignment of the plants usually help reduce the appearance and harvesters and causing considerable fruit to fall to the ground. While it is spread of such diseases. Elderberries seem to be particularly good hosts essary.
At present, most of the crop is harvested by hand. Between 25 and for viruses T. Jones, pers. Viruses infect various elderberry 40 kg can be handpicked in an hour Sansdrap Tomato ring- increase harvest efficiency by fostering the formation of fewer but larger spot and Cherry leafrollviruses infect American elderberry Jones ; fruit clusters.
It is impractical to control the vectors for elder- are dark blue, almost black, in color. An individual plant can usually be berry viruses nematodes, leafhoppers, aphids etc. Filippin et al. This operation is in S.
The fruit clusters are collected into containers of capacity suitable to allow 4. Abiotic Stress. Elderberry is not salt tolerant, an important point to rapid cooling. Elderberries that are not frozen immediately should be consider if elderberries are to be planted along roadsides where salt is refrigerated Sansdrap and processed shortly after harvest, as fruit used in the winter, or if they are to be irrigated with poor-quality water.
American elderberry tolerates air pollution and can be used as an Considering their rather small size and lack of appeal as a fresh ornamental in urban areas DeGraaf and Witman ; Beaudry et al. European elderberry withstands various anthropogenic pollu- sold fresh. Elderberries do not form a consistent abscission zone between tants, such as fluoride and sodium Heinrich and Schaller , the pedicel and the fruit, and many fruits tear and leak when removed ozone Davis et al.
Much of the crop is frozen and Kosheleva However, ozone injuries have been frequently immediately after harvest, which facilitates long-term storage until found in field-grown European elderberries in Poland Godzik processing. Alternately, the fresh fruits can be pressed and the resulting and in Ukraine in a closely related species, S. This juvenile nonrepro- berries to fall through while intercepting the stems. Cleaning is done by ductive period can extend to 3 years if seedlings are used Bolli Enough water is then poured in to cover them.
The container is will encourage vegetative growth. Way estimated a production of gently shaken, causing stems, leaves, green berries, and any insects about 6. These values are in agreement with that may have been gathered along with the berries to float to the surface those of Skirvin and Otterbacher who estimated a production of the water, while the ripe berries remain at the bottom.
More water is varying between 7. In USDA hardiness zones 5 and 7, then added, and all this unwanted material is poured out of the con- production of between 1 and 3 kg per bush was obtained from cuttings in tainer. After this rinsing operation, the berries are poured out on to a the second year in the field Finn et al. However, in hardiness zone screen, to form a thin layer. After being left to drain for a few minutes, production year third year in the field , peak at 11 kg the fourth year, and they may be packaged and immediately chilled and stored, either fresh or slightly decrease the fifth year if no pruning is performed D.
Charlebois, frozen. These yields are very close to those reported by Adams almost Removing the fruit from the clusters is difficult when the fruit is fresh years ago Adams Unfortunately, increased fruit production is but simple once they are frozen.
After the elderberries are frozen, the accompanied by smaller fruit clusters that results in higher harvesting stems can be removed readily simply by mechanical agitation of the fruit costs.
As the bushes age in subsequent years, productivity may be clusters over shaking wire mesh or a similar device, such as a blueberry expected to decline gradually. Pruning to encourage vigorous growth is destemmer. Fruit quality can then be evaluated and plant debris and essential to keeping the elderberry plantation productive. Little is below-grade fruits eliminated. Yield 2. As with American elderberry, harvesting fruit from 1. Yield data from wild populations are lack- wild elderberry populations has probably been going on for thousands of ing, although fruit has been harvested for thousands of years by years in Europe.
In a survey conducted from to , Sisak native peoples. In one study, Caisse measured the productivity reported an average of In a study conducted between and Brunswick, Canada. She reported very low yields, ranging from 0 to less in Poland, Wazbiriska et al. Considering the natural density of the plant over the 1. Kollanyi et al. The natural low density of the plant and the of S.
Maximum yields for 'Sampo' and 'Samyl' were superior to those full production potential in the wild. Even with these limitations, large reported by Wazbiriska et al. The average yield for the wild- quantities of American elderberry are harvested from wild plants in the growing European elderberry was much higher than that reported by Midwest U.
Most known interspecific hybrids concern European elderberry Bacher A. Selection and Breeding. Europe, northern Africa, eastern Asia, and North Amenca. Their hardi- Ourecky also mentioned a few cases of interspecific crosses ness and attractiveness, as well as their ecological, ornamental, and involving S.
It is most likely that naturally occurrmg potential parents for specific traits and information on inheritance pat- forms, such as viridis and laciniata European and Mediterranean Plant terns is scarce. Breeding objectives for elderberry include large fruit size, Protection Organization , or large-fruited types Way , have firmer fruit texture, large fruit cluster size, small seeds, self-fruitfulness, been used in the past to develop new cultivars.
The Danish breeding program is seeking Geneva and around in Canada by E. The following Kaack a. The usual practices of pollen collection, some of the better-known European elderberry cultivars. Emasculated blossoms are best isolated from chance pollen before scribed in the literature Vines ; Wyman ; Bailey and Bailey and after pollination; this can be accomplished by protecting the cluster ; Craig ; Krusmann ; Hightshoe ; Griffiths ; with a paper bag.
Fruit clusters resulting from controlled crosses must be Hillier and Coomes , and probably several hundreds have been protected from bird depredation.
Fruit is harvested when all berries in a evaluated. While European elderberry was dominating the market cluster are fully ripe. Germinated seedlings can be transplanted to Stang , nowadays both species are about equally represented in individual containers and later planted into selection rows in the field. In some cases, such as Seedlings frequently flower and fruit inthe second season, allowing for 'Acutiloba', 'Aurea', 'Chlorocarpa' and 'Laciniata', the relationship of rapid selection for a number of traits of interest.
Advanced selections in the genotypes to the two species was unclear. Seedling production is usually not used to establish have been reported Schneck Only a few cases of natural or orchards for fruit production but is useful for producing large numbers induced interspecific Sambucus hybrids have been reported, but of plants for wildlife habitat or in breeding work.
In some situations, unavailable, the ripe berries can be carefully pureed by hand or in a food where it is desirable to produce large numbers of a specimen in a short processor or blender Morrow et al.
In vitro or ensure that the berries are reduced to a pulp, and then the seeds can be micropropagation may be necessary in these instances. In vitro propa- extracted. The processor or blender should be run long enough to gation also allows for meristemming or a combination of meristemming separate the seeds from the pulp; depending on the number of berries after heat therapy to eliminate viruses from the planting stock.
Some Regardless of the source of material used, it will take between 3 to seeds will be observed floating on the surface of the liquid. These are 5 years to attain full fruit production Stang Sources of certified probably empty or unlikely to germinate and should be discarded. Whether from the seeds, which are approximately 1 mm in diameter, will not pass seeds or from cuttings, appropriate procedures must be followed in order through it.
The-residue should be rinsed with water several times and, if to produce certified pathogen-free material European and Mediterra- necessary, run through the food processor or blender again to eliminate nean Plant Protection Organization Although elderberry seeds, the remaining fruit pulp.
Filtration must be done after each rinse, and the seedlings, and cuttings are commercially available, elderberry nurseries seeds then allowed to dry. Finally, the seeds should be shaken through a and distributors are uncommon, and care must be taken to ensure that sieve to eliminate any remaining residue.
The fruits can also be crushed, cultivars remain true to type. As a rule, the fresher the seed, the higher the germination a genotype in one environment is not predictive of how it will perform in rate. Brinkman found that American elderberry seeds retain most the other. This means that it is important to trial cultivars in the region of their viability after 2 years. Fresh European elderberry seeds are where they will be grown to determine if they will be commercially reported to have a germination rate of Charlebois, un- B.
Seed Propagation publ. A single plant may thus supply several tens of thousands of seeds each year. Seed Germination. Extracting seeds from elderberries is a relatively simple and Mott ; Hidayati et al. The obtain seeds from ripe berries harvested from healthy, productive bushes.
In 24 to 72 hours, the skin and necessary for seeds from southern sources Dirr and Heuser Water should be added, and the Untreated seeds can take up to 2 years before germinating.
While remains of the flesh and skin and any floating nonviable seed poured inexpensive and simple, this material yields poor results. Scarification off. The seeds should then be allowed to dry. This process avoids the risk with sulfuric acid can be used prior to the stratification treatment of damage that a blender or food processor may inflict if not carefully Heit ; Hankla ; Young and Young This treatment managed.
Seeds can also be extracted mechanically. Barring the use of sulfuric acid, the 1. Hardwood Cuttings. Hardwood cuttings commonly include 3 to 5 following technique is successful. Seeds are placed in a sealed plastic buds. In most cases, the taking of cuttings can be judiciously timed to bag containing a sterile and moist but not wet medium. Adding gibber- coincide with the pruning of the bushes. Hardwood cuttings should be ellic acid to the watering solution increases germination rate Hidayati collected in November, after the leaves have fallen, to avoid the risk of et al.
Peat moss is usually satisfactory, but sand can also be used. Charlebois, later in winter or early spring. The cuttings should be placed together in unpubl. After that period, the bags may be placed in light at room bundles, set upright in coarse sand or peat moss, in which they are buried temperature until the seeds germinate.
Alternatively, seeds can be sown in late fall or spring elderberries are still dormant, and stuck directly into propagation beds. If directly on a raised bed at a density of about seeds per meter and harvested in April or May after budbreak , hardwood cuttings should be thinned as necessary.
If cuttings are taken in spring, the physiological condition of the 2. Seedlings may be transplanted into plug trays containing a canes cannot readily be determined, resulting in a variable percentage of commercial potting mix. Direct exposure to sunlight should be avoided, successful cuttings. In very cold climates, the tips of canes may suffer and care must be taken to ensure that the potting medium is kept moist.
To address this problem, woody sections of cane, located A starter fertilizer for woody plants may be used, according to the several centimeters down from the apex, should be selected from manufacturer's recommendations. Elderberries do not grow as well in vigorous canes. When the seedlings have attained sufficient may be beneficial in stimulating rooting, although it is not essential.
The size, they may be transferred to the field. A good way to assess seedling cuttings are set upright in a trench, spaced between 7 and 10 em apart, development is to examine the root system. Depending on how well and covered with a medium, with the upper buds left protruding above advanced they are, it may be advisable to keep them in containers for the soil surface.
The medium used should possess good water-holding another year. New roots will appear Elderberries are exceptionally well suited for propagation by means of within the first 2 weeks and cease to emerge after about a month Wilson cuttings.
Mother plants for cuttings should be true to type and healthy. In and Wilson According to these authors, the presence ofleaves is particular, care must be taken to ensure the identity of mother plants, necessary for the production ofroots.
Another method is to lay down a since many cultivars cannot be distinguished solely on morphological strip of plastic mulch and push the cuttings into the soil through the features of the vegetative parts, and their tendency to produce suckers plastic, approximately 15 em apart, with 2 to 4 em of cane protruding.
Cuttings can also be removed from wild scribed. The great advantage of this last approach is that the cuttings plants when elite specimens are found or for breeding purposes DeGraaf need not be transplanted; the disadvantage is that not all the cuttings will and Witman Once the planting is well developed, cuttings may be root, leading to gaps in the row.
One way to minimize this problem when taken during maintenance pruning operations. Elderberries are easily cuttings are in sufficient number is to place up to three cuttings at the propagated from hardwood lignified cuttings, taken in winter , soft- same location and thin out successful cuttings that might be in excess. The planting medium should be kept moist during this period. Micropropagation, Elderberries can readily be propagated by means Growth of the new canes may be anywhere from 15 em to cm in the of in vitro culture, and the propagation medium may also be used for first year.
If larger plants are required, the cuttings may be kept under rooting Brassard et al. Low mortality rates are observed during the these conditions for an additional year. Moreover, micropropaga- under more adverse conditions, such as a dry year, the rate may be as low tion is sometimes the only way to obtain virus-free material.
However, a number of commerciallabora- 2. Softwood Cuttings. Softwood cuttings are taken during the growing tories could propagate exceptional individual plants on a large scale in a season and usually comprise the terminal portion of a new green branch.
A softwood cutting containing between 2 and 3 nodes will normally be satisfactory. Each node bears 2 opposite buds in the axils of the com- pound leaves. The first cutting taken from a cane ends in a nonwoody V. USES portion that is frequently green, consists of a number of telescoped internodal spaces, and may include flower buds. Ideally, the basal end Almost every part of the elderberry plant has some uses: fruits, flowers, of the cutting should not be more than 10 mm in diameter, in order to leaves, roots, pith and bark Valles et al.
Information related to maximize rooting. Cuttings larger than this tend to root less satisfactorily, human exploitation of Sambucus can be traced as far back as the Ancient and their abundant foliage makes them more sensitive to rot. They Rome. Dioscorides CE mentioned the use of S. Pliny The optimal period for softwood cutting is between the time the the Elder CE reported that numerous wind instruments and pop- bushes are at the flower bud stage and the end of their flowering or the guns were made out of elderberry Grieve Report ofthe medicinal beginning of fruit set in southern Quebec and in early summer before uses of elderberry flowers and bark were already mentioned in the 17th flowering in the central United States.
As cuttings are collected, care must be taken to protect against American people and European culture. These characteristics have been overheating and desiccation. It is unlikely that taking too many cuttings documented by Gunther , Vines , and Moerman The from any particular bush might cause damage as elderberries are well species nigra, in particular, has been the subject of many traditions, some able to withstand drastic pruning and only the ends.
While the Native Americans had a long Early removal of flower stalks on the parent plants may be one way to history of using the native Sambucus species, the European immigrants promote more vigorous vegetative growth. Techniques to improve root- quickly recognized the similarity between S. Little attention, traditionally, has been placed on optimization of fruit quality from the field through handling to the consumer.
Several factors limit the postharvest shelf life of avocados and thus quality. The avocado is considered to be a climacteric fruit, that is, during the course of ripening, the fruit will experience an increase in respiration and ethylene production. Associated with the increase in respiration, is an increase in heat production, one of the byproducts of respiration. The heat of respiration of an avocado is considered to be quite high, on the magnitude of 4. On the other hand, if avocados are held at warmer temperatures, premature softening may occur, thus limiting options for marketing.
The avocado can develop 2 types of chilling injury, internal and external. Internal chilling injury manifests itself as a grayish-brown discoloration of the flesh, particularly at the base of the fruit around the seed. This can be associated with vascular browning which starts at the base of the fruit. There is considerable variability between varieties in terms to chilling injury susceptibility. Symptoms of external chilling injury occur as irregular patches of blackening on the skin similar to apple scald that can be observed during storage.
Symptoms may develop within 1 to 2 weeks after harvest, depending on the temperature. In varieties that darken during ripening, external chilling injury can be partially masked as the fruit darkens, but if damage is severe it may render the peel brittle, thus affecting fruit peelability.
The susceptibility of the avocado to both types of chilling injury is influenced by a number of postharvest handling factors including maturity at harvest, duration of storage and storage temperature. It is possible to reduce fruit sensitivity to chilling by using controlled or modified atmosphere during long-term storage, or intermittent warming or stepped- down cooling. For a more thorough discussion of avocado postharvest biology see Woolf et al Table 1. Preharvest factors involved in postharvest fruit quality.
Often times, fruit ripening is not done at the proper temperature or fruit are allowed to excessively soften. This may result in losses due to excessive decay and bruising occurring during handling of soft fruit. Work is underway in California and elsewhere to examine ways to optimize fruit ripening in the postharvest environment and thus minimize quality problems at the consumer level. The remainder of this paper will examine the role of the preharvest environment and how it may affect the postharvest life of avocado.
Essentially, preharvest factors can influence both the rate of fruit development and maturation. The preharvest environment can also have a physical impact on fruit quality: for example, wind or insect scarring may reduce the packout percentage.
Finally and most important, but much more difficult to quantify, are those effects that influence susceptibility to physiological and pathological breakdown in the postharvest environment. The avocado tree exists in a dynamic environment and therefore can respond to changes to that environment in an interactive fashion.
The factors listed in Table 1 are neither all inclusive nor mutually exclusive. Several examples will illustrate the interaction between one or more preharvest factors on postharvest fruit quality. Elements such as wind, heavy precipitation, and frost may result in direct loss of the fruit from the postharvest chain due to fruit scarring; increased incidence of plant pathogens associated with high rainfall, especially during flowering i. Temperature during fruit growth and maturation may also influence fruit quality by either hastening or delaying horticultural maturity.
Avocado fruit shape is influenced by growing environment. Fruit grown in cooler environments tend to be more rounded as compared to fruit grown in warmer conditions which tend to be more elongate. Contrasted with this, is the much more elongated fruit shape one observes when the variety is grown in the hot San Joaquin Valley of California.
Fruit shape is more tear-dropped in intermediate environments. In South Africa the incidence of grey pulp or mesocarp discoloration following storage changes with time between growing districts and time within a harvesting season Rowell, ; Kruger, F. After mild freezes in California, avocado fruit, although exhibiting no external damage, may become more susceptible to decay, weight loss, and chilling injury following storage.
Relative susceptibility can be correlated to pedicel appearance following exposure to temperatures below -1C in the field. This characteristic can be used as a marker of fruit quality at harvest following mild freezes Arpaia, unpublished data. Several researchers have illustrated the impact of inoculum load and rainfall on the subsequent severity of postharvest decay Smilanick and Margosan, ; Everett et al.
In spite of this, Marques demonstrated that rootstock can also influence the incidence and severity of postharvest disease. If pruning or girdling occurs at a time that promotes vegetative growth at the expense of fruit growth, a Ca imbalance and reduction in overall fruit size may occur.
Whiley et al. Cutting and Bower demonstrated, under the subtropical growing conditions of South Africa, that avocado fruit borne on trees where vegetative growth was controlled by pruning had higher Ca, Mg, K, and P levels at harvest. In Australia, current recommendations it is now believed that canopy management treatments need to avoid increasing vegetative growth during fruit growth otherwise fruit quality will be compromised.
Thrips scarring, caused by second instar feeding of the avocado thrips on young, developing fruit, is a major concern for growers and is the number one pest controlled in avocados in California.
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